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1: Color History

We begin with color history. This pillar provides perspective to the others, demonstrating how historical color science has shaped our perception of colors and our ability to produce and apply them. From the field of physics, with scientific experiments on light wavelengths, to biology’s understanding of the human eye, our knowledge has evolved. Later, contributions from neuroscience and psychology expanded our understanding of perception and emotions related to color. Art history and philosophy also embrace color science, investigating its significance for humans and the artifacts we create and consume. The history of technology has further shaped color use and availability, with mineralogists working on pigments and developments in printing technology laying the foundation for artists and designers. The invention of the camera, and later the computer, with digital color systems for screens and printers, further revolutionized our possibilities. However, the digital wave has also introduced challenges in navigating color options and achieving calibration.

The earliest known use of pigments by humans was discovered in Twin Rivers Cave in Zambia, dating back between 200,000 and 400,000 years. These colors likely had ritualistic and aesthetic significance rather than functional purposes (1). Historically, color has been used in religions, spirituality, and rituals, often holding symbolic meanings. For example, in Hinduism, gulal, a colored powder, is used in the ancient Holi Festival, where it is joyfully thrown at participants. The vibrant orange color worn by monks similarly represents spiritual commitment. Colors have also played significant roles in wars and pandemics, with disease names like "Black Death" (plague) and "Yellow Fever." Furthermore, colors have often represented revolutionary movements, bringing people together under a shared symbol (2). Examples include the Yellow Vests in France, Black Lives Matter and the Pussyhat Riots in the U.S., and the Green Movement in Iran. Colors can also independently attract attention, such as when Juventus temporarily redesigned their jerseys in pink in 2021, generating substantial social media buzz.

When we look back at history, we find a wealth of color models, each offering unique interpretations of color relationships and their influence on humans. These models span both physical principles (wavelengths, light, and darkness) and innovative applications (how technology has enabled us to work with colors artistically and scientifically). Kenneth Burchett’s bibliography, Color Bibliography - Antique to Modern (3), serves as extensive evidence of the vast array of academic fields dedicated to color studies over time, providing the foundation for this project.

Newton & Goethe

In the 1660s, Isaac Newton revolutionized our understanding of color with his prism experiment, creating what is often regarded as the first scientific color circle. It spans from infrared to ultraviolet and includes all colors. His work Opticks: or, A Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections, and Colors of Light was published in 1704.

Before this discovery, the colors created when light reflected through glass were observed but dismissed as impurities. For centuries, the use of pigments was considered unnatural and even unethical (1). With the discovery of color wavelengths and the understanding that light contains all colors, previous ideas of subtractive color mixing were transformed. In painting, the more colors one mixes, the darker the result. But with light, the perception is additive; it contains all colors and appears bright white. In contrast, when no light is reflected, dark colors appear closer to black. Light falling on an object reflects only certain wavelengths to our eyes, forming our perception of color. We also know that dark objects absorb more heat than light ones when exposed to sunlight—dark objects do not reflect light, thus becoming warmer.

Newton’s discovery allowed us to scientifically relate colors to each other, categorizing complementary color sets and demonstrating proximity between colors (1). Physics, therefore, is foundational to color theory, with the discovery of wavelengths and the establishment of the color wheel serving as bases for many color models and theories later developed by scientists, designers, and artists. The next pillar will explore the color wheel in depth.

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe built on Newton’s theories, expanding the understanding of darkness as equally important as light in color theory. In color and nuance, both light and darkness play essential roles. Goethe not only updated the color wheel but also made color science more accessible to artists and philosophers. For example, he discussed the division between warm and cool colors—a concept widely used today in discussions of color.

Industry, Technology, and Production

Historically, colors were challenging to produce, and we have developed colors through technological advancements. Prussian Blue (a deep ultramarine blue) was discovered by accident in 1706 by Johann Jacob Diesbach, who was originally attempting to create a red pigment from insect dye (cochineal dye). The reaction of blood and potash with iron sulfate resulted in a deep blue. Industry has played a crucial role in the production and accessibility of color. Today, we take for granted the ability to choose between countless colors, producing products in various hues, applying color filters, painting walls, and customizing designs in precise colors. This has not always been the case. Historically, chemists, biologists, and mineralogists significantly advanced color processes, particularly in art and textile industries. Art history has periods focused on achieving realistic color representation, while textile industries have used colors to convey status and draw attention. Colors were luxurious and symbols of prestige due to the expense and labor involved in pigment production.

A notable revolution occurred when chemist Michel Eugène Chevreul developed color plates, pioneering new printing techniques during the Industrial Revolution. These color plates greatly expanded the range of colors available, revolutionizing industries and offering new resources to designers, artists, and factories. Mass production, enabled by industrialization, added "color to everyday life" as more products became available in different color palettes.

Language, Mapping, and Inspiration Catalogs

Examining history, we find numerous examples of color publications aimed at artists and designers. Nomenclature of Colours, by Abraham Gottlob Werner, remains a notable example and is still available today (4). Werner meticulously cataloged and depicted colors found in nature in extensive color collections published in 1814 for artists, artisans, and scientists. His work not only introduced people to new colors but also provided a language and naming system for hues. As a result, these collections were particularly valuable for scientists, including Charles Darwin, who needed precise descriptions of nature, anatomy, and chemistry.

Comparing historical color publications to today, I observe distinct parallels. Today’s sophisticated trend houses produce seasonal color guides. An example in Denmark is PEJ Gruppen, while internationally, Pantone, Peclers Paris, and Lidewij Edelkoort publish refined and costly volumes for designers and other professionals. These guides serve as compasses in a design culture where the possibilities for creating and selecting colors are vast. Their work bridges the gap between observation and analysis, and the creation of art and design, showing that we are still building on the development of color theory.

Psychology and Philosophy

Since the 17th century, philosophers have debated whether colors exist objectively or are simply an arbitrary classification of perception (1). Modern research provides more insight. In the 20th century, studies suggested that language is fundamental to perception. We cannot recognize a color unless we have a word for it. However, Anna Franklin’s experiments show otherwise; even before developing language, we can categorize colors. Franklin conducted studies in child pattern recognition, observing that color categorization shifts from the right brain (abstract, creative) to the left (logical, linguistic) as we acquire language (1). Thus, as we learn language, our color perception becomes more analytical and categorized.

Colors and color designations arise within cultures, differing across regions. Research into color perception as a psychological field is thus intriguing. A noteworthy project is David McCandless’ extensive infographic that maps colors across countries and cultures (1: Page 6).

Paradigm Shift: From Scarcity to a Kaleidoscope of Colors

In the 19th and 20th centuries, companies often developed unique color methods and palettes for customers, particularly in paper, textiles, painting, ceramics, and plastics. A paradigm shift occurred in the mid-20th century when Pantone introduced a matching system in 1968, enabling consistent colors across media and production. Pantone not only published color tools but also provided color research and analysis. Gradually, color assumed a new role in our culture, used as markers across various systems such as wayfinding, medicine, politics, and information dissemination. The explosion of digital media introduced entirely new ways to implement colors (1: page 8).

One could argue that we have entered a new paradigm in color science and design. Moving from a pre-modern period where colors were scarce and technologically challenging, accessible only to the wealthiest, we now live in an era where colors are ubiquitous, easy to edit, produce, and reproduce. We have sophisticated control tools, yet the extensive and fragmented media landscape has made colors omnipresent, sometimes resembling a cacophony. What about language? Can we navigate and articulate colors effectively? Today, it’s increasingly about navigating, choosing, and controlling colors.

Technologically, we have unlimited color tools at our disposal. This project aims to list some of them, ranging from AI-based color-naming generators to color palette creators. We also continue to see new production methods that revolutionize how colors are implemented, both on screens and in print. Interestingly, traditional natural pigments are also

References

1) Travis, Tim, The V&A Book of Color in Design, 2020, Thames & Hudson
2) Fine, Aaron: Color Theory — A Critical Introduction, 2022, Page 333.
3) Burchett, Kenneth: Color Bibliography — Anitquity to Modern - The New Version, 2005, Amity America Press
4) Syne, Patrick, Werner's Nomenclature of Colours, 1821, William Phillips

Color Wheels

Different color circles has been developed through research, innovation, and contributions from both scientific and artistic fields over time, and it exists in numerous versions. The fundamental color circle places complementary colors opposite each other and explains the wavelengths of colors. Some color circles also account for color saturation and light intensity (SOURCE). The common color circles today typically include 12 primary colors, allowing for choices among different shades.

Historically, Newton’s prism experiments laid the foundation for the color theory we know today (SOURCE: NEWTON). His observations and theories have since been refined, particularly through Goethe’s significant contributions to color theory. Unlike Newton, Goethe emphasized the importance of darkness in the perception of color (SOURCE: GOETHE ON DARKNESS). Additionally, Goethe introduced the concept of warm and cool colors, which is highly useful for designers in describing colors (SOURCE: GOETHE ON WARM AND COOL COLORS).

Below, I have outlined several milestones in color history that have significantly impacted the development of color research and, in particular, the color circle:

Albert Henry Munsell, a painter and scientist, developed his own color system, organizing colors based on three dimensions: hue, value (lightness), and saturation. His work was pivotal in standardizing color descriptions and has been widely used in many subsequent color circles. SOURCE

Johannes Itten, a Swiss artist and Bauhaus school teacher, developed a well-known color circle where he introduced the concepts of primary colors (red, yellow, blue), secondary colors (obtained by mixing primary colors), and tertiary colors (combinations of secondary and primary colors). SOURCE

Harald Küppers developed the "Farbenkreis" color circle, which integrated both Goethe’s and Newton’s approaches. This work emphasized the importance of color harmony and complementary colors in artistic creation. SOURCE

While color circles may not assist a designer in simply selecting colors, they are essential tools for understanding color composition and, more importantly, color relationships—particularly when creating color palettes. Numerous modern books and online blogs use the color circle to help create and explain color palettes. The models below visually consolidate and clarify how color circles organize colors and what terminology we can apply to colors depending on their position within the color circle.

In later sections, I will elaborate on the role the color circle plays in building color palettes.

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